Crude Drugs: Pharmacognostic Investigation

Crude Drugs: Pharmacognostic Investigation Introduction Microscopical examination and pharmacognostic evaluation of phyto drug may not apparently bear any direct co-relation with pharmacological and phytochemical evaluations. One should always remember that botanical identity of the phyto drug is an essential pre-requisite for undertaking the analysis of medicinal properties of any plant. If botanical identity of drug happens to be doubtful the entire phytochemical and pharmacological work on the plant becomes invalid. Thus the botanical identity of a crude drug threshold in the process of pharmacological investigations. Pharmacognostic Evaluation A systematic pharmacognostic study was carried out on the herbal drugs selected, to describe them more scientifically and to identify specific characteristics, if any, which will be helpful in the quality assurance and standardization of these plant drugs. Leaf Constants Determination of Stomatal Index Stomatal index is the percentage which the number of stomata form to the total number of epidermal cells, each stoma being counted as one cell. Stomatal index was be calculated by using the following equation. I = S X 100 E+S I=Stomatal index, S=No. of stomata per unit area, E=No. of epidermal cells in the same unit area. Middle part of the leaf was cleared by boiling with chloral hydrate solution. The lower epidermis was peeled by means of forceps and mounted on the slide with glycerine water. Camera lucida and drawing board were arranged for making drawings to scale. A square of 1mm was drawn by means of stage micrometer. The slide with cleared leaf (epidermis) was placed on the stage. The epidermal cells and stomata were traced out. The number of stomata present in 1sq mm area was counted. (Stomatal Number). The result for each of the ten fields was recorded and the average number of stomata per sq.mm was calculated. The stomatal index was determined using the above formula. The slides were prepared for Gynandropsis gynandra,(fig.2). The Stomatal number and Stomatal index values are given in Table.2. Determination of Vein-Islet Number Vein-islet is the small area of green tissue surrounded by the veinlets. The vein-islet number is the average number of vein-islet per square millimeter of a leaf surface. It is determined by counting the number of vein-islets in an area of 4 sq.mm of the central part of the leaf between the midrib and the margin. A portion of leaf was cleaned by boiling in chloral hydrate solution for about thirty minutes and slide was prepared. Camera lucida and drawing board were arranged for making drawings to scale. Stage micrometer was arranged on the microscope and using 16 mm objective, a line was drawn equivalent to 1 mm as seen through the microscope. A square was constructed on this line. The patter was moved so that the square is seen in the eye piece, in the centre of the field. The slide with the cleared leaf epidermis was placed on the stage. The veins which are included within the square were traced off, completing the outlines of those islets which overlap adjacent sides of the square. The number of vein islets in 1sq mm was counted. (The slides were prepared for Gynandropsis gynandra,(fig.5)). The average number of vein islets in the four adjoining squares gave. The Vein islet number.(Table -3) Determination of Palisade Ratio Palisade ratio is the average number of palisade cells beneath one epidermal cell of a leaf. It is determined by counting the palisade cells beneath four continuous epidermal cells. A piece of the leaf was cleared by boiling in chloral hydrate solution for about thirty minutes and slide was prepared. Camera lucida and drawing board were arranged for making drawings to scale. Using 4mm objective, the outlines of four cells of the epidermis were traced off. The palisade layer was focussed and sufficient cells were traced off to cover the tracings of the epidermal cells. The outlines of those palisade cells which are intersected by the epidermal walls, were completed. The palisade cells under the four epidermal cells were counted. The average number of cells beneath a single epidermal cell was calculated. (The slides were prepared for Gynandropsis gynandra,(fig.8). The determination was repeated for five groups of four epidermal cells from different parts of the leaf. The average of the results gave the palisade ratio. (Table-4) Histology of Gynandropsis gynandra: Midrib of Leaf: The transverse section of midrib of Gynandropsis gynandra Linn comprises of the epidermis, cortex, endodermis and vascular bundles. (fig.13) Upper epidermis: Comprises of barrel shaped cells which are closely packed, devoid of chloroplast and possess glandular trichomes. Cortex: Below the epidermis layers of cortical cells are present which are made up of polygonal parenchymatous cells. Endodermis: Endodermis is made up of rectangular barrel shaped cells with casparian thickenings. Pericycle: Below the endodermis three layered pericycle is present which is made up of parenchymatous cells. Vascular Bundles: A four to five layered phloem tissue is present that is made up of thinwalled phloem parenchymatous cells and phloem companion cells. Xylem tissue is made up of xylem elements, xylem parenchyma and xylem companion cells. Lower Epidermis: Is made up of polygonal cells which are closely packed together. 2.4.2 Stem: Transverse section of Gynandropsis gynandra Linn stem comprises of epidermis, exodermis, cortex, endodermis and vascular bundles. (fig.14) Epidermis: External layer with tightly joined cells that are devoid of stomata. This layer is usually termed as rhizodermis. It is also known as epiblema. This layer with covering trichomes dries and its place is taken by typical secondary boundary tissue called exodermis having glandular trichomes. Exodermis: This layer is present below the epidermis and is often regarded as a protective layer. The walls of the cells become suberized. Eames, in 1947, regarded this as hypodermis; Foster and Guttenberg, in 1943, gave it the name exodermis because of the presence of suberin in its walls. The suberin lamella develop on the inner side of the primary wall. They differ from cork cells since they contain protoplasmic contents. Cortex: The cortex is comparatively simple in histology and is generally composed of thin walled cells with lots of intercellular spaces. The cells are arranged in concentric layers with cells in each layer alternating with others. Endodermis: It is a distinct layer of cells differentiated from the innermost layer of cortex. The layer is uniseriate, made up of barrel shaped cells. Casparian strips are present radially. Pericycle: Below the endodermis, a few layers of parenchymatous cells are present which make up the pericycle. Vascular Bundles: The stem exhibits secondary growth, hence a complete ring of cambium is formed. A distinct secondary phloem is visible on the outer side. There is outer fascicular cambium which is made of parenchymatous cells. The phloem consists of phloem fibres, sieve tubes and companion cells. The secondary xylem shows distinct vessels and forms a continuous band interrupted here and there by narrow rays which are uniseriate. The secondary xylem constitutes a large portion of the bundles; it is present on the inner side and consists of vessels with simple perforated tracheids with a few simple pits on radial walls and some xylem parenchyma. Pith: Thin walled or thick walled cells filled with tannin and crystals of gypsum constitute the small pith. Stomata: Anisocytic or cruciferous (unequal) type of stomata which occurs in Capparadaceae family. The stoma is usually surrounded by three or four subsidiary cells, one of which is markedly smaller than the others. (fig.15) Physico Chemical Evaluation of Crude Drugs Extractive Values Extractive values are useful for evaluation of crude drugs and give an idea about the nature of chemical constituents present in them. The amount of extractive a drug yields to a given solvent is often an approximate measure of a certain constituent or group of related constituents the drug contains. In some cases the amount of a certain constituent or group of related constituents the drug contains, in some cases the amount of drug soluble in a given solvent is an index of its purity. The solvent used for extraction should be in a position to dissolve quantities of substances desired. Determination of Alcohol Soluble Extractive 5 g of macerated and air-dried coarse powder of drug was mixed with 100 ml of 95% alcohol in a closed flask and kept for 24 hours, shaking frequently during the first 6 hours and then allowed to stand for 18 hours. Thereafter, it was filtered rapidly taking precautions against loss of the solvent. About 25 ml of the filtrate was evaporated to dryness in a tared, flat-bottomed shallow dish, dried at 105o C and weighed. The percentage of alcohol-soluble extractive was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug. Determination of Water Soluble Extractive Proceeded as directed for the determination of alcohol soluble extractive, using chloroform water I.P. as a solvent. Determination of Chloroform Soluble Extractive Proceeded as directed for the determination of alcohol soluble extractive, using chloroform as solvent. Determination of Petroleum Ether Soluble Extractive Proceeded as directed for the determination of alcohol soluble extractive, using petroleum ether as a solvent. (Table 6) Loss On Drying About 5 g of powder was accurately weighed, placed in a petri-dish and dried in hot-air oven at 110Â ° C for four hours. After cooling, it was placed in a desiccator. The loss in weight was recorded. This was repeated till constant weight was obtained and % Loss on Drying was calculated with reference to the air-dried drug. (Table 7) Determination of Ash Values Ash values are helpful in determining the quality and purity of crude drugs in powdered form. Ashing involves an oxidation of the components of the product. The total ash usually consists of inorganic radicals like carbonates, phosphates, silicates and silica of sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium. A high ash value is indicative of contamination, substitution or adulteration. Sometimes, inorganic variables like calcium oxalate, silica, carbonate content of crude drug affects total ash values; such variables are then removed by treating with acid (as they are soluble in hydrochloric acid) and then acid-insoluble ash value is determined. Ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid is the residue obtained after extracting the total ash with hydrochloric acid. This acid-insoluble ash value particularly indicates contamination with silicious materials like earth or sand. Water-soluble ash is that part of the total ash content which is soluble in water. It is a good indicator of either previous extraction of water soluble salts in the drug or incorrect preparation. For the determination of various ash values viz. total ash, acid-insoluble ash, water-soluble ash, the shade dried parts of the selected plant materials were powdered and passed through sieve no:40 and studies were carried out. The values vary within fairly wide limits and is therefore an important parameter for the purpose of evaluation of crude drugs. Determination of Total Ash A flat, thin porcelain crucible was weighed and ignited. About 2 g of the powdered drug was taken into the crucible. The crucible was incinerated at temperatures not exceeding 4500C, until free from carbon.The crucible was cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The procedure was repeated to get constant weight.The percentage of total ash was calculated with reference to the air dried drug. (Table No.8) Determination of Acid-insoluble Ash The total ash obtained was boiled with 25 ml of 2 M hydrochloric acid for 5mins. The insoluble ash was collected on an ashless filter paper and washed with hot water. The insoluble ash was transferred to a pre-weighed silica crucible, ignited, cooled, weighed and procedure was repeated to get constant weight. The percentage of Acid-insoluble ash of the crude drug was calculated with reference to the air-dried sample of the crude drug. (Table No.9) Determination of Water-soluble Ash The total ash obtained was boiled in 25 ml chloroform water for five minutes. The insoluble ash was collected on an ashless filter paper and washed with hot water. The insoluble ash was transferred into pre-weighed silica crucible, ignited for 15 minutes at a temperature not exceeding 450o C. The crucible was cooled, weighed and the procedure was repeated to get constant weight .Weight of the insoluble matter was subtracted from the weight of the total ash. The difference of weight was considered as the water-soluble ash. The percentage of water-soluble ash was determined with reference to the air-dried drug. (Table No.10) Fluorescence analysis of the crude drugs: Many crude drugs show fluorescence when the sample is exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Evaluation of crude drugs based on fluorescence in daylight is not much used, as it is usually unreliable due to the weakness of the fluorescence effect. Fluorescence lamps (366 nm) are fitted with suitable filters, which eliminates visible radiation from the lamp and transmits ultraviolet radiation of definite wavelength. Several crude drugs show characteristic fluorescence useful for their evaluation. (Table No.11) Total Solid Content About 5 g of extract was accurately weighed in a petri-dish and kept in a hot-air oven and maintained at 110Â °C for four hours. After cooling, the loss in weight was recorded. This procedure was repeated till constant weight was obtained. (Table No. 12) Total solid content (%) = Loss in weight x 100/W W = Weight of the extract in grams Extraction Maceration The powdered materials were extracted with alcohol (95%) by cold maceration method. Weighed quantity of powdered crude drugs were taken into round bottom flasks with alcohol, in the drug to solvent ratio 1:3 and kept for maceration for a period of 7 days. Finally the flask was left undisturbed for 12 hrs and then the contents were shaker and filtered through Whatman filter paper No.1. The marc was re-extracted with drug solvent ratio of 1:2. The extracts were combined and concentrated in a rotary flash evaporator, till free from solvent. The extracts, thus obtained were stored in a refrigerator at 40C until used. (Table No.13) Qualitative Phytochemical Screening A spectrum of natural compounds like alkaloids, glycosides, tannis, essential oils and other similar secondary metabolites which exert physiological activity are synthesized in the plant, in addition to the carbohydrates, proteins and lipids utilized by man as food articles. A systematic and complete study of crude drugs should include a thorough investigation of both primary and secondary metabolites derived as a result of plant metabolism. The different qualitative chemical tests are to be performed for establishing profile of a given extract/fraction for its nature of chemical composition. The following tests were carried out on the extracts to detect various phytoconstituents present in them. Detection of Alkaloids About 50 mg of solvent free extract was stirred with little quantity of dilute hydrochloric acid and filtered. The filtrate was tested carefully with various alkaloid tests viz., Mayers Test, Wagners Test, Hagers Test, Dragendroffs Test Detection of Carbohydrates About 100mg of the extract was dissolved in 5 ml of distilled water and filtered. The presence of carbohydrates were tested by Molischs Test, Fehlings Test, Barfoeds Test and Benedicts Test Detection of Glycosides For detection of glycosides, about 50 mg of extract was hydrolyzed with concentrated hydrochloric acid for 2 hrs on a water bath, filtered and the hydrolysate was subjected to the Glycoside testa viz., Borntragers Test, Legals Test, Detection of Saponins Foam or Froth Test Detection of Proteins and Amino Acids About 100 mg of extract was dissolved in 10 ml of distilled water and filtered through Whatmann No.1 filter paper and the filtrate was subjected to tests for proteins and amino acids. Viz., Millons Test, Biuret Test, Ninhydrin Test Detection of Phytosterols and triterpenoids: Tested by Libermann Burchards and Salkwoski test Detection of Phenolic Compounds and Tannins Tested by Ferric chloride test, Gelatin test, Lead acetate test, Alkaline reagents, and Shinoda test or Magnesium Hydrochloric acid reduction Thin Layer Chromatography Thin Layer Chromatography of extracts was done by using standard procedures and is mainly used for the detection of the nature of phytoconstituents present. Thin Layer Chromatography is a very effective technique for the separation of chemical constituents of an extract and for their identification. The history of TLC has been reviewed by various authors. A major breakthrough in this field was the commercial availability of convenient precoated plates in the early 70s Pharmacopoeias are increasingly employing this technique for assessing the quality and purity of compounds of both synthetic and natural origin. TLC profiles developed for an extract from a define solvent system and other parameters could be used as a fingerprint in comparative qualitative evaluation of herbal drugs. The trend of evaluation by this method is becoming popular in view of its simplicity and reproducibility. TLC is an important analytical tool in the separation, identification and estimation of different classes of natural products. In this technique, the different components are separated by the differential migration of solute between two phases a stationary phase and a mobile phase. Here, the principle of separation is adsorption and the stationary phase acts as an adsorbent. Depending on the particular type of stationary phase, its preparation and use with different solvents, separation can be achieved on the basis of partition or a combination of partition and adsorption. Preparation of Plates 100 g of Silica gel-G was weighed and made into a homogenous suspension with 200 ml of distilled water to form aslurry. The slurry was poured into a TLC applicator, which was adjusted to 0.25 mm thickness on flat glass plate of different dimensions (10 x 2, 10 x 5, 20 x 5, 20 x 10 cm etc.). The coated plates were allowed to dry in air, followed by heating at 100 105o C for 1 hour, cooled and stored in a dry atmosphere to protect from moisture. Before using, the plates were activated by heating at 100o C for 10 minutes. Detection of Steroids / Triterpenoids and their Glycosides Solvent systems used: Ethyl acetate: Methanol : Water 81 : 11 : 8 Ethyl acetate: Methanol : Water 75 : 15 : 10 Chloroform : Methanol : Water 70 : 30 : 4 Chloroform : Methanol : Water 64 : 50 : 10 n-Butanol :Acetic acid: Water 4 : 1 : 5 (upper phase) Benzene : Ethyl acetate 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 50 : 50 Chloroform : Methanol 95 : 5, 90 : 10, 80 : 20 Ethyl acetate: Methanol 90 : 10, 80 : 20, 50 : 50 Spray Reagents: 1) Vanillin Sulphuric acid (VS) reagent Solution I : 5% ethanolic sulphuric acid Solution II : 1% ethanolic vanillin The developed TLC plate was sprayed with 10 ml of solution I, followed immediately by 5-10 ml of solution II, then heate for 5-10 minutes at 100o C under observation. steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides give blue, blue violet or pink colored spots. 2) Vanillin Phosphoric acid (VPA) reagent Solution a: 1 gm vanillin dissolved in 100 ml of 50% phosphoric acid Solution b: 2 parts 24 % phosphoric acid and 8 parts 2% ethanolic Vanillic acid After spraying with either solution a or b, the plate was heated for 10 minutes at 100o C Red Violet colour indicates the presence of steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides. 3) Antimony (III) chloride reagent 20% solution of antimony (III) chloride The developed TLC plate was sprayed with reagent and then heated for 5-6 minutes at 100o C Red violet color in visible light; red violet, blue and green fluorescence in UV at 365 nm indicates the presence of steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides. 4) Anisaldehyde sulphuric acid reagent 0.5 ml of anisaldehyde was mixed with 10 ml glacial acetic acid, followed by 85 ml of methanol and 5 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid, in that order. The developed TLC plate was sprayed with reagent, heated at 100o C for 5 10 minutes. steroids / triterpenoids and their glycosides give blue, blue violet or pink coloured spots. Detection of Flavonoids and their Glycosides Solvent systems used: Chloroform : Methanol 80:20, 70:30, 50:50 Ethyl acetate : Methanol: Water 81:11:8 n- Butanol : Acetic acid : Water 4 : 1 : 5 (upper phase) Ethyl acetate: Formic acid: Glacial acetic acid: water 100:11:11:27 Ethyl acetate: Formic acid: Glacial acetic acid: Ethyl methyl ketone: Water 50:7:3:30:10 Detection The developed TLC plate was observed in visible light and in UV at 365 nm. Flavonoids and their glycosides appear as yellow, dark blue, orange zones / spots. The color gets intensified on exposure of the plates to ammonia vapors. Detection of Alkaloids Solvent systems used Benzene : Ethyl acetate : Diethylamine 6:3:1 Toluene: Ethyl acetate: Formic acid 5:4:1 Detection: Dragendorffs reagent The developed TLC plate was sprayed with reagent and then heated for 5-6 minutes at 1000C, spot will be developed.

Foucault: History of Sexuality/ A Reading

According to Foucault, power from the 18th century began to be exercised in two dimensions. The first one was formulated by the disciplinary techniques and methods of ‘bio-power', the power over life which increased the capacities of the human body, and at the same time enhanced its economic utility. The second dimension focuses around the exercise of bio-power over the body and its vitality. Foucault focuses on relations of power and knowledge but his immediate object of analysis was sexuality because it concerns with both, the relations of power of the individual as well as the society. Sex was supposed to be located at the centre of the two axes of the development of political technology of life. Sexuality in Foucault's work thus achieved an important means of addressing the question of formation of the subject. The issue of sexuality emerges at several points in Foucault's works but it is only approached in a limited and sustained manner in ‘History and Sexuality'. The essays constitute the central theme of the history of sexual conduct and behaviour, and the analysis of philosophical and religious ideas on sexuality so as to reach an understanding of the formation and the development of the experience of sexuality in modern societies. He keeps shifting from keeping a historical focus to more analytical concerns in his work on sexuality. The Introduction of the essay provides an analysis of sex as an historical theory rather than as the most basic innate human element. Foucault compares and analyses sex and sexuality in relations to power and knowledge and extends the study further to dissect the modes of what he calls the ‘objectification' through which human beings are made into subjects. In the beginning, the historical focus moves from the post-enlightenment period of the 18th and 19th century events to a period encompassing the centuries immediately before and after the death of Christ right up to the middle ages, further onto an analysis of Greek and Christian texts. In the following volumes relations of power, through which individuals form and change themselves through the techniques of the self are focused upon. Foucault begins by analyzing the popular Victorian concept of sexual experience that sex was used as a means of repression and as a symbol of power. He questions the general belief of ‘repressive hypothesis' to reach an understanding of the relations between power and sex. As an effect to that he formulated a set of questions like, why has sexuality been so widely discussed? , what are the links between these discussions and the pleasures and power effects that were caused by them? Etc. This hypothesis describes the history of western societies after the 17th century as a period in which a series of prohibitions laid down on the individuals and their physical behaviour. By the coming of the Victorian age, sexuality was confined and controlled to home and marriage, except for the licensed access to sex in markets and brothels. This prohibition of sexuality is seen by Foucault as having some similarity to the general repression due to capitalism and its class related problems. Foucault argues that another sexual tendancy is also evident in the increase of discourses concerned with sex. There emerged a political, economic and technical incitement to talk about sex. From this point onwards, sex became an object of administration, management and the government. He argues that a proof that sex was implicitly present as an object of inquiry was the government's focus on population. Population became an object of government and administration with the realization that it had its own limitations. The governments became more aware and concerned of the economic, moral, health and political problems of their populations. This in turn lead to a study and a minute analysis of various influences on population like birthrate, legitimacy of births, age of marriage, frequency of sexual relations, fertility etc. Therefore as on one hand, sex became confined to home and the licensed married couple, on the other hand, it also became a governmental matter between the state and the individual. Sex became a public issue open to discourses, analysis and a matter of gaining knowledge in. This resulted in the emergence of the 18th and 19th century discourses on sexuality through the fields of medicine, psychiatry, criminology and social work. Foucault comments that the past three centuries reveal a vast accumulation of endless discourses on sex and sexuality. We can thus say that modern western societies were distinct not for their repression and censor of sex, but rather for their simultaneous subjection of sexuality to never ending discussions and their curiosity for exploring of the secrets of life and birth. We may then conclude that all different legal, medical and moral discussions had in the end, cultivated a reproduction of labour capacity and the preservation of the prevailing form of social relations. Foucault argues that if the increase in these discussions was governed by the intention of eliminating fruitless pleasures, then they had failed as the 19th century saw a bifurcation of sexualities into many perversions. Foucault suggests that power did not prohibit or eradicate extra-conjugal, non-monogamous sexualities, on the contrary they were multiplied. The form of power to which sex was subjected did not set boundaries for sexuality. It extended the various forms of sexuality, pursuing them according to lines of uncertain analysis. It did not exclude sexuality, but rather included it in the body as a mode of specification of individuals. It did not seek to avoid it but attracted its varieties by means of complex gyre like structures in which pleasure and power reinforced one another. Thus the manifold sexualities, sexualities of different ages and those fixated on particular tastes, all formed equations of power. Perverse forms of sexuality are then seen as the effects or the products of the exercise of a type of power over bodies. This extension of power over bodies, conduct and sex, does not produce repression, but an incitement of unorthodox and perverse sexualities. Thus Foucault's argument that we need to abandon the hypothesis of increased sexual repression associated with the development of modern industrial societies. Power in its exercise has not taken the form of law, it has been positive and productive rather than negative, and has ensured an increase of pleasures and a multiplication of sexual perversions. In the 19th century, sexuality was constituted in scientific terms. Within western societies, there developed a ‘scientia sexualis', whose objective was to produce real and honest discourses on sex, the truth on sex to be precise. At its centre was a technique of confession, whose history may be traced back through the middle ages in western Europe to the first centuries of Christianity. From the Christian penance to the psychiatrists couch, sex has been the central theme of confession. Foucault argued that with the rise of protestant religion, anti-reformation and the 19th century medicine, confession spread beyond its traditional Christian usage and entered a diverse range of social relationships, an effect of which was the constitution of archives of the truth of sex inscribed within medical and psychiatric discourses. Within modern societies this intersection of confession with scientific investigation constructed the domain of sexuality as problematic and thus needing interpretation and therapy. In short the object of investigation became to uncover the truth of sex, to reveal its secret and thus to gain knowledge of individuals and their behaviours. As a result of this, sex became not only an object of knowledge, but the focus of our being, our truth. Although the concept of power is central to both the analysis of penal incarceration and the preliminary work on sexuality, in no sense does Foucault's work constitute, or even attempt a formulation of a theory of power. At the most what is presented is the critique of the prevailing formation of the exercise of power which lies at the foundation of both sexual repression and alternative hypothesis in which desire is conceived to be constituted in the form of law like rules. Such a conception of power has structured the analytical field of inquiry in terms of problems of right and violence, freedom and will and the state of sovereignty. According to Foucault's view power is relational. It is not born from a particular site or location. It is a concept which refers to an open, organized, hierarchical group of relations which are both unstable and local and the analysis of sex proceeds by analyzing the complex relations between the discussions on sex and on the multiplicity of power relations associated with them. There emerged four strategic unities associated with the production of the discourses on sexualities in the 19th century. These constituted of the specific mechanisms of knowledge and power, centred on sex and the four sexual subjects. The strategic unities were: a hysterization of womens bodies, a pedagogization of childrens sex, a socialization of procreative behaviour and a psychological analysis of perverse pleasures. And the subjects were hysterical women, a masturbating child, a Malthusian couple and a perverse adult respectively. According to Foucault, these four unities do not represent mechanisms for controlling or regulating pre-existing forms of sexualities, rather they represent the relations of power and knowledge articulated in medical, pedagogical, psychiatric and economic discourses. In Foucault's view, from 19th century onwards the ‘Deployment of Alliance', a system of rules and practices defining the permitted and the forbidden relations between sexual partners, has been paralleled by the development of sexuality operating through techniques of power rather than a system of rules. Whereas the former is concerned with the link between partners, the latter, the deployment of sexuality manifests a different connection to the economy through the cultivation of the body, ‘a body that produces and consumes'. The family gradually became a transmission of the strategies of ‘sexualisation' that emerged in the 19th century. Foucault's theory is that in the first instance, it was in the ‘bourgeois' or the aristocratic family that the sexuality was given a status of a medical problem. The psychological convergence of sex thus began with the bourgeoisie with a sexualisation of the idle and the nervous woman with the self-abusing child. The objective was to constitute a body and a sexual identity for the bourgeoisie to ensure the vigour and longevity of the classes that ruled rather than a repression of the class that was exploited. This new distribution of pleasures had as its initial purpose the self affirmation of the bourgeoisie by a specifically political ordering of life in which a technology of sex was fundamental. Just as the aristocracy constructed a sense of itself, its special qualities and its difference from other social classes in terms of concept , so did the bourgeoisie, through a conception of a sound body and a healthy sexuality articulated in biological and medical discourses, sought to affirm its present and future specificity. Turning to the lower orders, the working classes, Foucault argues that just as the Christian technology of the flesh had exercised a little influence over their rude sensuality, so for a good while they remained untouched by deployment of sexuality. But gradually from the 18th century however, a series of developments like the identification of problems of birth control and the development of juridical and medical measures to protect society from perverse forms of sexuality, precipitated a diffusion of mechanisms of sexualisation throughout the society. This effected in the working class being subject to the deployment of sexuality. However the sexuality of the working class was in no way synonymous to the bourgeoisie, there is no sense in which Foucault's analysis brings us to this interpretation. The practice of sexuality in modern western society is not conceived by Foucault to be either collective or united. On the contrary, the forms taken and instruments employed are conceived to have varied in relation to the social class. The domain of sexuality in Foucault's works is presented as one of the most important concrete arrangements through which power has been exercised over life in modern western societies. It is the key element in the emergence and development of the measures of supervision which have constituted the foundation of forms of public provision and welfare. The exercise of a pastoral or caring power over life in general and in particular is presented as a fundamental or defining characteristic of modern societies and as a necessary precondition for the distribution of capitalist economic relations throughout social life. It is because of this articulation of the phenomenon of human existence that the general social significance of the deployment of sexuality is initially focused on by Foucault. The specificity of modern western societies is associated with a particular historical transformation or shift of the emphasis from exercise of absolute power by or in the name of the sovereign, literally to take life, to the emergence and development of governmental technologies of power directed towards an administration of the processes of life in order to increase their economic utility. The two basic forms in which power began to be exercised over life from the 17th century are: * An anatomo-politics of the human body, * A bio-politics of the population. The first form according to Foucault concerns the exercise of power over the life of the body and is exemplified by the disciplines and techniques directed towards the increase of bodily forces and capacities. The second form in which power has been exercised over life is that of the management and regulation of the population, the body as a species and its mortality and fertility issues. The emergence of the technology of bio-power constituted an important event and signified a shift away from unstable, dramatic and ceremonial exercises of sovereign power towards an investment of the processes of life by an economic and efficient form of power. The emergence of bio-power designated the moment at which the phenomena of human existence were submitted to the calculation and order of knowledge and power. At the intersection of the two axes along which the exercise of power over life developed, namely the disciplines of body and the regulation of populations, lies the political issue of sex. Sex achieved importance as a political issue because it offered access to both life of the body and the life of the species so that we comprehend the pursuit in dreams, behaviour and beyond the truth of sexuality. Foucault deals with various modes of explaining the relations of power and knowledge through which human beings are made subjects. Foucault not only rejected the belief that sexuality is predicated on a biological given sex, but argued that the autonomy given to sex was an effect of the deployment of sexuality. Foucault argued that the category of sex established through the deployment of sexuality in the course of the 19th century performed a number of functions. It offered a principle of unification through which anatomical elements, biological functions, conducts, sensations and pleasures could be presented as the underlying cause of behavioural manifestations, as a secret to be discussed and interpreted. Through such proximity to biology and physiology, the knowledge of sexuality gained a semi-scientific status and contributed to the development of a process of normalization of human sexuality to the determination of normal sex and its various pathological corollaries. The idea of sex as the latent, secret force repressed within us allowed power to be conceptualized solely as law and taboo and thereby hiding the positive relation of power with sexuality. The corollary of this position is of course that it led to the equation of human liberation with the discovery and expression of the secret of sex and sexuality. The final section of the idea of sex outlined by Foucault focuses on the process by which human beings become subjects. It is through the idea of sex that each individual has to pass in order to have access to his own intelligibility, to the whole of his body and to his identity. Thus Foucault's position is that the exercising of power over life has advanced through the deployment of sexuality and its construction of sex as the secret of existence to be discovered and articulated, as a force to be liberated and realized, and be synonymous to our very being. This arises from the fact that in his view sex-drive cannot be free of power. It is an effect of the deployment of sexuality and of the exercise of technologies of power over life. Sex is not the underlying reality beneath the illusory appearance of sexuality, on the contrary, sexuality is a typical historical formation from which the notion of sex emerged as an element central to the operation of bio-power. In western civilization there has been a tendency to associate the theme of sexual austerity with various social or religious taboos and prohibitions. Foucault argues that in fact it seems to have been quite different. To begin with, moral considerations of sexual condition were subject to a fundamental gender dissymmetry. The moral system was produced by and addressed purely to free men, to the exclusion, to the exclusion of women, children and slaves. A second significant feature of the moral system is that it did not form fundamental prohibitions or taboos in relation to forms of sexual austerity, rather it intended to present or propose modes of conduct appropriate and relevant for men in view of their right, power, authority and freedom. Foucault states that in the texts of Greek or Gaeco-Roman antiquity, the emphasis as far as moral considerations are concerned tends to be placed on practices of the ‘self', rather than on codes and conducts in terms of the permitted and the prohibited. I have tried to make a thorough reading of Michael Foucault's essay the ‘History of Sexuality' and found that it effectively establishes that the roots of our modern sexual ethics go back to ‘Antiquity'. Although the emergence of Christianity did not introduce a novel code of sexual behaviour, it did transform people's relationship to their own sexual activity. Although the essays address themselves explicitly to the question of the so called ‘problematization' of sexual activity, they also are important for their implications for an understanding of the art of government which developed in modern western societies.

Othello, By William Shakespeare - 963 Words

Iago is well aware of the scheme he is putting into action and plays on Othello’s weakness â€Å"O, beware, my lord, of jealousy! It is the green-eyed monster, which doth mock the meat it feeds on† (Othello. 3.3.167-169). Iago takes advantage of his own wife, Emilia, retaining Desdemona’s scarf from Othello from her and placing it in Cassio’s possession. By doing, this Iago is able to prove his allegations of Desdemona and Cassio. Othello expresses jealousy and believes that Desdemona has been unfaith to him with Cassio and must kill her. He strangles Desdemona with his own hands. During this time, women were to be submissive to their husband, which makes it understandable why instead of fighting Othello she allows him to take her life. Moreover, it shows the respect and love she held for Othello. Emilia finds her woman dead and is furious because she knows the faithfulness of her woman. Emilia shows the most courage by speaking on Desdemonaâ€⠄¢s behalf against her own husband. She explains she gave the scarf to Iago exploiting him of all his lies. Iago instructs her to be quiet and she does not follow directions so he kills Emilia. There is a room full of men, guards at that, but not one go to her rescue. This exhibits the treatment society gives to women during this time. Women are more of an ownership than a human being. Society treats women as if they must earn their value through the type of wife they are to a man. Iago’s anger is the leading cause ofShow MoreRelatedOthello, By William Shakespeare957 Words   |  4 Pagesinnocent person kills himself while not knowing the truth. The best example of that would be the play Othello by the great William Shakespeare. As little as a handkerchief could make a difference if it is a symbol for something. In the play Othello by Shakespeare, handkerchief is first introduced by Othello to his beautiful mistress, Desdemona, as a sign of their love. At the end of the play what gets Othello to take extreme measures by the location of the handkerchief. As the symbol of the handkerchiefRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1599 Words   |  7 Pages William Shakespeare’s 16th century play Othello is a duplicitous and fraudulent tale set alternatingly between Venice in act 1, and the island of Cyprus thereafter. The play follows the scandalous marriage between protagonist Othello, a Christian moore and the general of the army of Venice, and Desdemona, a respected and intelligent woman who also happens to be the daughter of the Venetian Senator Brabantio. Shakespeare undoubtedly positions the marriage to be viewed as heroic and noble, despiteRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1218 Words   |  5 PagesIn a historical time period where emphasis was shifting from religion to race and ethnicity, key indicators of differences that perpetuated into racial prejudice and racial ideologies are evident in Othello by William Shakespeare. Although racism was not fully formed at this moment in history, Othello can be interpreted as a representation and an exploration of this shift in ideology. In the past, before this change to ward racial differences, religion was the major segretory factor in signifyingRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare894 Words   |  4 Pagesthose that which occurred in Othello written by William Shakespeare. Throughout the play Othello, we see the struggles of a marriage that is not accepted by their society. Othello is a extremely cherished black general living in a primarily white community. The play begins with Othello secretly becoming married to a white woman named Desdemona. This reasons others who are white to become angry and excuse to dislike this black man further more than they already do. Othello is a downward spiral from loveRead MoreOthello by William Shakespeare790 Words   |  3 PagesThroughout Othello by William Shakespeare, Othello makes numerous poor decisions due to his jealousy. Hitting Desdemona, trusting Iago, and killing Desdemona are among a few of the poor decisions that he makes. The word jealous can be defined as feeling or showing suspicion of som eones unfaithfulness in a relationship. Othello feels suspicious of Desdemona’s and Cassio’s relationship because of the lies that Iago tells him. Many people try to tell Othello the truth but he only believes the wordsRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1923 Words   |  8 Pagesdissatisfaction or complication is shown. Firstly in Othello love is presented as ephemeral and transient while atonement love is presented as unrequited and finally in cat on a hot tin roof love is presented as painful and troublesome due to unreciprocated feelings. The tragic plot of Othello hinges on the potential of the villain, Iago, to deceive other characters, above all Roderigo and Othello, through encouraging them to misinterpret what they see. Othello is prone to Iago s ploys seeing that he himselfRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare941 Words   |  4 Pageswas Williams Shakespeare’s play Othello which depicts the tragedy of Othello, a Morris Captain. What is different about Shakespeare play is that the tragic hero is the black Othello and the villain a white Iago. Therefore, Shakespeare depiction of Othello as a tragic character and Iago as a villain, challenges Elizabethan’s stereotypes regarding individuals of African descent. Shakespeare challenges the stereotypical â€Å"type –casting of the black man† in Elizabethan society by depicting Othello asRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1152 Words   |  5 Pages‘Othello’ was a tragedy of incomprehension at the deepest level of human dealings as no one in the play came to an understanding of himself or any of the surrounding characters. The play ‘Othello’ by William Shakespeare focused on tragedy through the anguish of the main character ‘Othello’ which lead to the suffering and death of numerous characters including himself. Appearance Vs. Reality challenged human dealings within the play ‘Othello’ as no-one came to see anyone’s true self and no-one seesRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1178 Words   |  5 Pagesprofitable in condition of good and immorality. Othello is presented as good and Iago as evil, but Iago and Othello’s relationship also shares a distrust of their wives. The overall logical argument is based on love, jealousy and betrayal between two lovers that ultimately leads to their separation because of Iago’s evil plan. I am using this article to agree with Berry s view on how Iago separates two lovers just so he can take retaliation on Othello by manipulating everyone to unmasking their trueRead MoreOthello, By William Shakespeare1140 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Othello† is a play written by William Shakespeare in 1603. In this play, Shakespeare features three major characters: Othello, Iago, and Desdemona. Othello, a black man, and Desdemona, a white venetian secretly eloped in the play. Iago shows racism and prejudice towards their relationship because of their skin colors. In the play, Iago says: â€Å"Even now, now, very now, an old black ram is tupping your white ewe. Arise, arise! Awake the snorting citizens with the bell, or else the devil will make a

Factors, Symptoms and Treatment of Alzheimers Disease Essay

Alzheimer Disease 1 Alzheimer Disease Introduction This research paper will examine factors, signs of symptoms, treatment, when to visit a doctor and how to care for a love one with Alzheimer disease. In the early stages of the disease, scientists have estimated that 500,000 people in their 30’s, 40’s and 50’s that have Alzheimer disease or a related dementia. Younger individuals may have problems with memory, thinking and concentration. The form of dementia is a term for the loss of memory and other intellectual abilities that interferes with their daily life. There’s serve types†¦show more content†¦The combination of physical and mental activity can maintain good blood flow to the brain as to encourage new brain cells. Alzheimer Disease 2 Some other benefits can reduce the signs and symptoms of numerous diseases and the risk of chronic conditions such as arthritis, heart attack, stroke, diabetes, osteoporoses, obesity, back pain and depression can protect against these diseases. Signs of Alzheimer In the early stages of Alzheimer is forgetting names of close family members, appointments, important dates or events, asking for the same information, relying on family members for things they were able to handle on their own. Some individuals may experience changes in their ability to follow a plan, work with number, follow a recipe or keep track of monthly bills. Individuals often find it hard to complete daily tasks at home, or at work. People can lose track of dates, seasons and time. Sometimes they may forget where they are or how they got there. Some people have vision problem, they may also have difficulty reading, judging distance and determining color or contrasts. Some individual may have trouble following or joining a conversation. They may stop in the middle of a conversation andShow MoreRelatedEssay on Informative Speech Alzheimer’s1316 Words   |  6 PagesSpecific Purpose: To inform my audience about Alzheimer’s disease. Central Idea: Alzheimers disease affects millions of Americans each year thus it is important to become familiar with the risk factors, symptoms and treatment options available for those living with the disease. Method of Organization: Topical. Alzheimer’s disease I. One year ago, my grandmother entered a state of rapid decline. A. She would get confused while out for a walk and forget how to get home. BRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease Is The Most Common Form Of Dementia1684 Words   |  7 Pages Alzheimer’s disease is the most common form of dementia, which slowly and steadily impairs the mental function and psychological competence. Even though there is no cure for Alzheimer’s, current treatment patterns and research aim to delay the progression towards dementia and the associated symptoms. The strongest risk factor for this disease is increased age, typically seen in individuals over the age of 65, but it must be noted that Alzheimer’s is not a normal part of the aging process. AlzheimerRead MoreAn Example Of A And A Neurocognitive Disorders And How They Affect Personality And Behavior Essay1470 Words   |  6 Pagesdisorders and how they affect personality and behavior. In this paper I will discuss an example of both a neurodevelopmental and a neurocognitive disorder. Within each of these disorders I will provide behavioral criteria, incidence rates, causes and treatments options for each of the disorders. The first disorder I am going to discuss is the neurodevelopmental disorder, Down Syndrome. Down Syndrome has always been fascinating to be as to its causes and its effects on people. Down Syndrome is congenitalRead MoreAlzheimer s Research Paper : Alzheimer And Its Symptoms1703 Words   |  7 PagesMrs. Crow 18 November 2015 Alzheimer’s Research Paper There are three separate stages of Alzheimer’s, they are all so different and yet so similar. Many people have a false recollection of Alzheimer’s disease and its symptoms. Many believe that people only get Alzheimer’s as a result of aging. Alzheimer’s disease is not a disease that happens because the human body gets worn down, but because of a change occurring in the human brain. Alzheimer’s is a serious disease that needs to to be acknowledgedRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease And Its Effects On The Human Brain1023 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction: According to the Alzheimer’s Foundation of America, Alzheimer’s disease is a disorder that results in memory loss, failed cognitive and language skills, and behavioral changes from progressive and degenerative damage on the brain’s neurons (Alzheimer’s Association of America, n.d.). The disease was first identified in the early nineteen hundreds by a German physician, Alois Alzheimer (Alzheimer’s Association, n.d.). Dr. Alzheimer’s began his research on the condition after a patientRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Alzheimer s Disease1220 Words   |  5 PagesThere are many diseases and disorders in the world that can attack a human’s body and destroy certain organ systems in the process. In this paper, you will learn about a particular disease that has been studied by many scientists and doctors for decades. Research hospitals such as Mayo Clinic and John Hopkins University have studied Alzheimer’s disease in order to come t o conclusions on what the disease is and what can cure the disease. This disease can cause critical damage to a human’s body fromRead MoreAlzheimer s Disease : The Neurological Thief822 Words   |  4 Pages Alzheimer’s Disease: The Neurological Thief Ashley E. Campbell Psychology 210 October 31, 2015 Malvereen Harris Alzheimer’s Disease: The Neurological Thief It is a wicked disease that slowly steals our loved ones memories, independence and eventually their lives. While no one knows the exact cause of Alzheimer’s Disease, it is the leading cause of dementia related deaths to date. It was first described in 1906 by Alois Alzheimer, a German psychologist and neurologist. Alzheimer’s DiseaseRead MoreAlzheimer s Is The Most Common Diagnosed Condition Of Dementia720 Words   |  3 PagesAlzheimer s is a slow and debilitating disease that generates multiple problems with cognitive skills including; memory, thinking and behavior. (MedlinePlus, 2015) It is especially painful for friends and family members who see their loved ones progressively lose their memory and ability to function as they normally have. Symptoms typically develop gradually and progressively get worse over time, becoming severe enough to put the person afflicted with the disease unable to complete daily tasks and placingRead More Alzheimers Disease Essay1468 Words   |  6 PagesAlzheimers Disease The disease called Alzheimer’s is the fourth leading cause of death in the United States (Weiner, 1987). It is estimated that the elderly population will double between now and 2030. During this period, the number of elderly will grow by an average of 2.8% annually (U.S. Census Bureau, 2001). By 2050, the number of people with Alzheimer’s is estimated to range from 11.3 million to 16 million (Alzheimer’s Association, 2005). These startling numbers should prompt an examinationRead MoreAlzheimers Disease in the Elderly Essay examples1604 Words   |  7 Pages Alzheimer is a disease that affects the elderly most. The disease was discovered by Dr. Alois Alzheimer in the year 1906 when he was examining a female’s brain. He found out that the woman displayed memory loss, language problems and some inexplicable changes in behavior. The disease was named after the doctor who was a German psychiatrist and a neuropathologist. Alzheimer’s disease is a degenerative brain disorder that leads to memory loss, personality changes, and language problems (Gilbert